History of nuclear energy power

Nuclear Power

 

We begin in 1896. In Paris, physicist Henri Becquerel accidentally discovers during an experiment that uranium leaves a trace or darkens a photographic plate without any other light source. He concludes that uranium naturally emits a ray he calls “uranique” in French. In the following years, physicists Pierre and Marie Curie discover other elements that also naturally emit radiation. 

They call the phenomenon radioactivity. Later, Ernest Rutherford, a British physicist born in New Zealand, suggests that radioactivity is radiation that accompanies the disintegration of atoms, which were previously considered to be indestructible. Other findings are then used to better understand the structure of the atom, with electrons revolving around a nucleus composed of protons and neutrons. In 1938, two German chemists, Hahn and Strassmann discover nuclear fission. 

Bombarding an atom of uranium with a neutron, it is divided into two, releasing energy. The following year in Paris, Frédéric Joliot-Curie discovers that during the nuclear fission of uranium, three neutrons are ejected which in turn could cause further fission of atoms. He discovers the ability to initiate a chain reaction and thus produce a large amount of energy. In Europe, World War II breaks out. 

While Germany continues to conduct research on uranium, Albert Einstein is convinced by Hungarian physicists to sign a letter addressed to Roosevelt, the President of the United States informing him of recent nuclear discoveries and the possibility of creating a very powerful bomb using uranium. The United States benefits from the influx of European scientists fleeing war and invests in research. At the University of California, Glenn Seaborg discovers that irradiated uranium produces a tiny amount of plutonium, a new metal that is radioactive and fissile, i.e. it can trigger a chain reaction.

 

In Chicago, Enrico Fermi creates the first atomic pile and - for the first time manages to control the first chain reaction of the fission of uranium atoms. Research is accelerated and substantial resources are invested. The United States secretly launches the Manhattan Project in collaboration with Canada and the United Kingdom. 

Top scientists gather in about 30 secret locations, with the best laboratories at the time made available to them. Their goal is to create the atomic bomb. The goal is to create a bomb from uranium and another from plutonium. In nature, uranium is composed of more than 99% of Uranium 238, i.e. with a nucleus of 92 protons and 146 neutrons, and 0.7% of Uranium 235, with three neutrons less. Only the latter is fissile and therefore useful in the project. 

The challenge is isolating and concentrating it to obtain so-called enriched uranium. The United States manages to produce 64 tons of highly enriched uranium to be used in the manufacture of the first bomb. By propelling a highly enriched uranium block onto another, the material becomes super critical. Fission begins and in a split second, a chain reaction ensues, releasing tremendous amounts of energy. For a plutonium bomb, a maximum of uranium piles are created in order to collect the plutonium produced. A few pounds are concentrated in the centre of the bomb. 

 

By simultaneously causing explosions all around, the material is compressed, becomes supercritical and explodes. On 16 July 1945, the first successful nuclear test takes place in the desert of New Mexico. By this point, Germany had already surrendered. Only the Empire of Japan is still at war against the United States. 

After Japan refuses to surrender unconditionally, the United States drops two atomic bombs on the country a uranium bomb on Hiroshima and a plutonium one on Nagasaki. The two bombs cause about 200,000 civilian casualties. Days later, Japan surrenders. With the United States demonstrating its power to the world, the USSR accelerates its own nuclear program to try and catch up. The USSR conducts its first nuclear test. 

During the Cold War, both powers engage in a frantic arms race. Large sums are spent to gain technological superiority and possess the world’s largest nuclear arsenal with the ostensible aim of deterring the enemy from attacking. While the United Kingdom tests its first atomic bomb, the United States tests its first thermonuclear bomb, also known as the hydrogen or H-bomb. 

This is a fusion bomb, i.e. it reproduces the reaction occurring in stars by fusing two light atoms, deuterium and tritium, under high pressure and a temperature of several million degrees Celsius. To achieve these conditions, it is decided to use the atomic bomb as a trigger. The explosion of the plutonium bomb creates the right conditions to trigger the fusion of atoms. The explosion that follows is far more powerful than nuclear fission. The Soviets, in turn, develop the H-bomb. In parallel, research is made to develop nuclear power. The first nuclear power plants appear. 

 

The majority of future reactors would be with pressurised water. In the core of the reactor is a vessel in which low-enriched uranium is placed and used as fuel. Chain reactions are controlled to last about 3 years. The heat emitted increases the temperature of pressurised water in the primary circuit. This circuit is brought into contact with the secondary circuit in which water heats to transform into steam. 

This is used to rotate the turbine which is linked to a generator that produces electricity. A cooling circuit pumps water from a river or sea to cool the vapour in the secondary circuit. Sometimes cooling towers are built to cool the water in the last circuit. To encourage research in nuclear power, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is created under the aegis of the United Nations. The organisation is responsible for ensuring the safe and peaceful use of nuclear energy. 

In addition, nuclear would also be used in medicine, notably in medical imaging and the treatment of certain cancers. While France tests its first atomic bomb, the arms race between the USSR and the United States takes a turn for the worse. The two powers have already developed intercontinental missiles and nuclear submarines. The USSR conducts the most powerful test of the Tsar Bomba, with a capacity of 50 to 57 megatons of TNT. The following year, the US tests a hydrogen bomb at an altitude of 400 km . The explosion creates an artificial aurora visible even from New Zealand; while the emitted radiation damages at least 8 satellites.

 

The same year, while the United States threatens Soviet territories with nuclear missiles installed in Turkey and Italy, the USSR places in Cuba nuclear missiles pointed at the United States. Just as tensions build to a climax, negotiations take place between the two powers after which both parties withdraw their missiles and the situation calms down. 

China tests its first atomic bomb. The United States and Soviet Union takes a dim view of the arrival of new competitors. Via the UN, they propose a Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. This differentiates the 5 so-called nuclear powers from the rest of the world. Existing nuclear powers cannot share knowledge or supply weapons, while remaining countries cannot attempt to obtain the atomic bomb. In addition, nuclear powers are supposed to disarm as much as possible. 

This treaty would gradually be signed by all countries of the world with the exception of India, Pakistan and Israel, which denies having atomic weapons despite heavy suspicion of the contrary. Latin America goes further by creating the first populated area free of nuclear weapons. Finally, the United States and Soviet Union agree to limit the production of strategic weapons. 1973 sees the world’s first oil crisis. 

In a short time, the price of a barrel of oil explodes, undermining global powers whose economy largely depends on the black gold. The world looks for alternatives to ensure their energy supply. France and Japan mainly rely on nuclear energy. In the following years, many power plants would be built around the world. 

In 1979, a major nuclear accident takes place in the United States. One of the reactors at the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant surges and the primary circuit leaks. As the fuel is no longer submerged, it overheats and then melts in its vessel. Fortunately, the containment resists and prevents radioactive leaks. 

A few years later at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, after a series of human errors, technicians lose control of the reactor. When the temperature of its core becomes too high, an explosion blows up the concrete roof, part of which falls and fractures the vessel. A highly radioactive cloud is released into the air. It spreads and contaminates a large part of the European continent. Around the power plant, a 2,600 sq km exclusion zone is created and more than 200,000 people are displaced. 

Around the world, the accidents generate or strengthen popular opposition to nuclear power, which puts a heavy brake on the development of the industry. After the fall of the USSR and the end of the Cold War, the US and Russia continue to reduce their nuclear arsenals. In addition, after more than 2,000 official nuclear tests in the world, the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) is introduced. It does not enter into force because out of the 44 countries with nuclear reactors at the time, three do not sign it and five others sign but do not ratify it. Two years later, India and Pakistan conduct a series of nuclear tests.

 

Abdul Qadeer Khan, considered the father of the Pakistani atomic bomb, acknowledges having developed a clandestine network originating in Dubai, which has been providing Libya, Iran and North Korea with the plans and materials necessary to create an atomic bomb. North Korea, after withdrawing from the Treaty on the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons, now declares that it has carried out its first nuclear test. 

At the same time, Iran announces that it has successfully enriched uranium, which worries the international community. Israel for its part maintains ambiguity over its nuclear program. Many believe the country has dozens of atomic weapons, but the latter neither confirms nor denies reports to deter any potential enemy. One of the advantages of nuclear power is that it emits little CO2. 

However, it generates radioactive waste with a lifespan of up to several hundred thousand years. While most of the waste has a lifespan of a few decades, current technologies do not offer a definitive solution for high-level, long-lived waste. Most countries rely on deep geological repositories to store nuclear waste more than 300 meters under the Earth’s surface. On 11 March, 2011, Japan suffers a triple disaster. After an 9.1-magnitude earthquake the most violent ever recorded in the country its coasts are hit by a powerful tsunami with a height of over 10 meters, affecting the Fukuyama nuclear plant. 

Crashes prevent the cooling of the core of its reactors. Within days, 4 reactors explode, releasing a highly radioactive cloud that is blown towards the Pacific Ocean, reaching the North American continent and then spreading throughout the northern hemisphere. All 39 Japanese nuclear reactors are then shut down.

 

In the aftermath, Germany announces a phasing out of nuclear power. Elsewhere, most nuclear countries review the safety of their plants. While 9 countries still have 16,000 nuclear bombs, at the UN, a Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, which aims at the complete elimination of nuclear weapons, is voted by 122 countries. 

Only the Netherlands votes against, while Singapore abstain. But the vote is marked above all by the absence of many countries, including the nuclear powers and member countries of NATO. If the treaty is ratified by 50 countries, it will come into force. Today, 34 countries have already ratified it. In terms of nuclear power, 417 operating reactors produce just over 10% of the world's electricity. 46 reactors are under construction, including 10 in China whose energy needs are increasing. 

Elsewhere in the world, the nuclear fleet is ageing. Two thirds of global reactors are older than 30 years, out of their originally planned lifespan of 40 years. Their future dismantling promises to be costly. New generations of nuclear power plants struggle to meet the world’s rising energy needs, while its construction suffers significant delays and additional costs. Meanwhile, 35 countries are collaborating around the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor, which is being carried out in France. 

The aim is to study the possibility of building nuclear fusion power plants over the long term. Its budget has already jumped from 5 to 19 billion euros, but if the project is successful it could offer a new type of power plant that would produce a large amount of electricity with little raw material and very little radioactive waste.   

History of United States America

 USA History

 

We begin in 1750 in North America. It's been 150 years since settlers from Western Europe, mostly fleeing poverty, famine, or religious and political persecution, first arrived on the continent. Their arrival came at the expense of millions of native Americans who lived there for thousands of years, mostly in tribes. On the East Coast, Great Britain has established colonies inhabited by 1.5 million people. 

The northern regions depend mainly on fishing and trade, while in the south, the climate is ideal for growing products such as tobacco, rice and cotton. Rich landowners - called the Planters - seize vast territories that they exploit by buying slaves from Africa, via the triangular trade. Further west, the Appalachian mountains form a natural boundary. Beyond it, is the vast French colony, which lives mainly off the fur trade. 

Tensions rise between the French and British colonies. When the Seven Years’ War breaks out in Europe, Britain dominates and takes hold of New France. Native American tribes living there unite to demand the departure of the British and the recognition of their own state. To calm the situation, the British government hurriedly carves out an Indian reservation between the Appalachians, the Mississippi River and the Great Lakes. 

This does not please the colonists who wanted to seize the opportunity to extend their territories to the west. In addition, war proves costly for Britain. The country expects its colonies to repay part of its debts through new taxes, which further angers the settlers. In Boston, in protest of taxes on tea, colonists disguised as Native Americans climb on board British East India Company ships and throw out its tea cargo into the ocean. With the situation tense, representatives from 12 colonies gather in Philadelphia to organise the First Continental Congress.

 

They decide to boycott British goods. The following year, the War of Independence breaks out, pitting the insurgents also called the patriots against the British and its loyalists. On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress proclaims the independence of the United States of America. France sees an opportunity to avenge its defeat in the Seven Years' War. Having invested heavily in its military fleet, the country has the means to compete with the Royal Navy. 

France allies with the patriots. Spain and the United Provinces of the Netherlands, in turn, go to war against Great Britain. In 1783, the patriots prevail, forcing Britain to recognise the independence of the country. The United States receives territories until Mississippi, while Spain seizes Florida. This marks the first time a European colony gains independence. 

The United States adopts a constitution based on a strict separation of powers. The legislative power formed by Congress passes laws and budgets, the judiciary with the Supreme Court upholds the constitution, and finally there is the executive power with the US president, the head of government. On the other hand, the 13 states retain sovereignty with their own constitution and governor. It was decided to build the new capital, Washington, along the Potomac River. 

In the West, each new territory with at least 60,000 free citizens would be allowed to form a new state equal to the others. Pioneers set off to relocate there, pushing back Amerindian tribes further west of the Mississippi River. In 1800, France obtained Louisiana from Spain in exchange for the kingdom of Etruria. But it proves difficult to protect this vast, far-away & relatively less known territory.

 

Fearing the loss of Louisiana to the United Kingdom in war, France decides to sell the region to the United States. Congress then funds expeditions to explore and reach the Pacific Ocean. In Europe, France and the UK clash again. The United States first tries to remain neutral, but following tensions with Britain, enters the war. 

It fails in a bid to invade the colony of Canada, as a British maritime raid reaches Washington and burns the city. At the end of the war, the United States abandons its ambitions in the north and focuses on the south where the Spanish Empire is in decline. A military incursion in Florida allows -- after negotiations -- the annexation of the territory. In the West, Oregon is shared with the United Kingdom. 

East of the Mississippi, five Amerindian tribes are adapted to the settlers' sedentary and agrarian lifestyle, but Congress nevertheless decides to take over the land and pushes the natives to a reserve west of the Mississippi. Thousands die of exhaustion on the way. In Mexico, Texas, which is populated mainly by settlers from the United States, declares its independence. After a war, the Republic of Texas is created and in 1845 is annexed to the United States. 

But as the border is poorly defined, both countries are at war. The United States prevails and takes the opportunity to annex New Mexico and California, where the discovery of gold causes a rush that attracts hundreds of thousands of pioneers of all origins. 

With the land route proving dangerous, private funds are invested in the construction of a railway in Panama. The state of California is admitted, which does not have slavery. Southern states are largely agrarian, and have slavery; while Northern states are industrial and abolitionist. Both sides wish to extend their model to the new western states, causing the gap between them to widen.

 

In 1860, Abraham Lincoln, who is hostile to slavery, is elected president of the country. In response, southern states secede from the United States one by one and band together to proclaim the Confederate States of America. 

Then begins the Civil War which pits the Unionists of the North against the Confederates of the South. The North sets up a maritime blockade on the Atlantic coast, cutting out any potential support from Europe and blocking cotton exports. In 1865, the North prevails and takes the opportunity to impose its policies. Slavery is abolished, and 3.5 million slaves are freed. But African-Americans are now victims of segregation and racism, especially through the emergence of Ku Klux Klan, a white supremacist organisation. 

Many migrate to the North, while others move to cities. The Russian Empire fears losing Alaska to Britain, so chooses to sell the territory to the United States. To accelerate its conquest of the West, the government finances the construction of transcontinental railway lines. In the centre of the country, the invention of new machinery allows intensive agriculture. 

Vast plantations of wheat, corn and large pastures are set up at the expense of the last 250,000 Amerindians who are kept on reserves. On the other hand, the rich soil allows rapid development of industry. The old continent, Europe, now views the United States as an El Dorado. Fleeing poverty and religious persecution, many Southern and Eastern Europeans migrate to the United States where they work as cheap labour. But the economic boom only benefits a minority.

 

An elite group of industrialists grows rich quickly by establishing monopolies in sectors such as steel, railways, oil and banks at the expense of workers and peasants, including women and children working in harsh conditions. Strikes and protests erupt demanding better conditions, but these are often met with violence by private militias or the National Guard. 

While European powers colonise a large part of the world, the United States also looks to project its power on the international scene. While annexing Hawaii in the middle of the Pacific, the country turns to Cuba where there is a revolt against the Spanish. The United States supports Cuban independent its. After the mysterious explosion of a US Navy ship in the port of Havana, war breaks out between Spain and the United States. 

The United States wins, obtains the independence of Cuba and seizes Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines. The country thus becomes a colonial power. In Colombia, a French company begins construction of a canal that would connect the two oceans, greatly shortening the journey between the US East and west Coast. The United States buys the project and then intervenes to support the independence of Panama. 

In return, the new government of Panama offers the United States a strip of land, which helps complete the construction of the canal, inaugurated in 1914. In Europe, World War I begins. With workers and peasants on the front-lines, industry on the continent slows down. The US industry takes advantage of this and despite the country’s neutrality in the war sells on credit ammunition, food, clothes and automobiles to the Entente countries. In response, Germany tries to impose a maritime blockade by sinking merchant ships in British waters.

 

In 1917, a German telegram destined for Mexico is intercepted, proposing a military alliance against the United States. This pushes the United States to go to war on the side of the Entente, and 2 million soldiers are sent to European fronts. 116,000 soldiers lose their lives. After the victory of the Entente, Europe finds itself indebted to the United States. 

The economy of the US prospers. In factories, improvements in the assembly line cause production to skyrocket and decrease prices. The rise in purchasing power and credit results in a boom for the sale of cars, all kinds of appliances, and bank shares. Hollywood becomes a major industry with global influence. 

Thanks to the sale of radios, music genres such as jazz become popular. In New York mainly, night clubs open, stimulating the sale of alcohol. The more conservative government tries to stem the phenomenon by voting for prohibition, forbidding the production, transport or sale of alcohol. In response, thousands of speakeasies spring up throughout the country. 

Mafia networks seize the market and get rich quickly. Meanwhile, the South misses out on this wave of prosperity. Falling prices for agricultural products plunge the region into poverty. The Ku Klux Klan comes back into prominence, this time also targeting Catholics, Jews and immigrants in addition to African Americans. 

The organisation reaches 5 million members, and is then banned after several lynching episodes. In 1929, the Wall Street Stock Market crash takes place. The US economy collapses. In a few short years, a string of bankruptcies of companies and banks pushes a quarter of the active population into unemployment. Prohibition is lifted, and steps are taken to try to revive the economy and improve working conditions.

 

In Europe, World War II breaks out. The United States, although officially neutral, prepares for war by reinstating military service. In addition, the country sells arms mainly to the United Kingdom and the USSR. In the Pacific Ocean, in order to curb the expansion of imperialist Japan allied to Nazi Germany, the United States imposes upon the country an embargo on steel and oil. In response, Japan launches a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, causing the United States to enter the war. 

The country secretly embarks upon a research program to create the atomic bomb. In 1945, the Allies overcome Germany. The USSR and the United States then unite against Japan. A ground invasion by the Soviets and the two atomic bombs dropped by the United States on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki force Japan to surrender. 

At the end of the war, the United States supports the creation of the United Nations whose primary role is to maintain peace and security in the world. Europe finds itself in ruins and is exhausted by war. The United States and the USSR emerge as the two great world powers. After World War II, the USSR and the United States try and peddle their influence in Europe. 

The United States implements the Marshall Plan, while the Soviet Union supports pro-communist governments in Eastern countries. The old continent is found divided by the Iron Curtain. The USSR and the United States engage in a cold war that is an arms race without direct confrontation. The US, largely spared the ravages of war on its territory, has an industrial, economic and military advantage. Inside the country, federal officials sympathetic to communist ideas are dismissed.

 

Hollywood is also used to churn out anti-communist propaganda. On the global arena, the country employs an interventionist policy, aimed at stemming at all costs the spread of communism. The US intervenes in Greece, China, and engages its military in Korea and Vietnam. The Soviet Union, for its part, invests heavily to catch up with the US. 

After developing atomic weapons of its own, it becomes the first country to send a satellite into orbit, and further outdoes itself by sending the first man into space. The United States then launches the Apollo program which aims to send the first astronaut to the Moon. In Cuba, an attempt to overthrow the new communist government fails. The Soviet Union takes advantage to ally with the country, and installs nuclear missiles on its territory, pointed at the United States. 

Tensions build to a point where it seemed a third world war was imminent. However, an accord is reached between the two world powers, resulting in the USSR withdrawing from Cuba. Within the country, more and more civil rights movements gain momentum, forcing the government to review its social policies. African-Americans begin non-violent actions to combat segregation. More and more women enter the workforce and demand equal pay. Native Americans also fight for better conditions. 

Moreover, with the US at war in Vietnam, students and hippie pacifist movements call for peace. In 1969, the country sends the first man to the moon. Worldwide, millions of viewers watch the event live on their television. On the global arena, the United States tries to ease tensions. It begins diplomatic rapprochement with China, and signs agreements with the USSR to limit the global arms race. In the Middle East, the US supports Israel in the Yom Kippur War, for which it is then subject to an oil embargo imposed by OPEC countries. 

In Vietnam, after negotiations, the United States withdraws their army. Two years later, the Communists prevail in the country, tarnishing the image of the United States. The USSR takes this opportunity to intensify its international policy. The country occupies Afghanistan, and in reaction the United States provides militarily support to the Mujaheddin. In Central America, US also intervenes in Nicaragua and Guatemala to counter communist revolutions. Iran, after a revolution, becomes an Islamic republic that goes against US policy. 

 

The latter strengthens its military presence in the Middle East to ensure the security of oil supply. On the Soviet side, the USSR struggles to contain the revolutions in Eastern Europe. With its economy in tatters, despite attempts at reform, in 1991, the USSR collapses, marking the end of the Cold War. The United States emerges as the only major world power. 

Domestically, the population calls for more investment in the fight against poverty, crime, gangs and drugs. However, the US continues to primarily focus on its foreign policy, showing an apparent willingness to become the world's policeman of sorts. When Iraq invades Kuwait, which then held 9% of the known oil reserves in the world, the United States forms a coalition and neutralises the Iraqi army. The US then establishes a list of countries considered as rogue and threatening global peace and stability. These nations are subjected to blockades and embargoes. 

 

Meanwhile, the military presence of an ally of Israel in the Middle East bothers radical Islamist, including the terrorist group Al Qaeda headed by Osama bin Laden, who is a former ally from the Afghan war. US facilities and assets around the world are targeted by terrorist attacks. 

On September 11, 2001, the United States becomes the victim of a large-scale terrorist attack on its territory. Terrorism thus becomes the new enemy of the country. But it proves more difficult to fight this war as terrorist organisations operate discreetly in mobile networks without borders. 

Having launched a war against the Taliban in Afghanistan, the US hardens its stance against North Korea, Iran and Iraq, which it considers part of an “Axis of Evil”. A new war is launched against Iraq, but US troops after quickly overthrowing the government find themselves fighting against several terrorist groups in the region. In 2007, the subprime mortgage shock, followed by the financial crisis plunges the global economy into turmoil. 

The country tries to revive its economy, among other measures, by boosting the extraction of shale oil on its territory. Today the interventionist policy of the country is increasingly countered by rising powers such as Russia and China.

The United States, however, remains the most powerful economy and military in the world.         

History of ancient China

 China history

 

Ancient China was one of the oldest civilisation in our history. The history of ancient China can be traced back over 4000 years ago what is now the territory of China was inhabited by early hominids more than a million years ago studies show that some stone tools dated to 1.3 million years ago. 

Early evidence of proton Chinese agriculture dated to about 7,000 BC and it seems that the earliest evidence of cultivated ROIs is from 8,000 years ago. Farming was the main reason for the growth of cultures and population in China. Farming gave the rice to the gyaku culture. Which developed a Chinese proton-writing and the Pearl rivers, provided the necessary fertile lands for agriculture because of this many other cultures were created and expanded. 

In this area large communities flourish from five to three thousand BC with evidence of agriculture constructed buildings and burial of the dead. In late Neolithic times the Yellow River began to establish itself as a centre of youngish culture and the first villages were founded. Later yangshao culture was superseded by the longshan culture which was also centred on the Yellow River from about 3000 BC to 2000 BC. in the Bronze age artefacts have been found mythology begins to appear in the Yangtze Valley.

 

In the 6th century BC the history of ancient China, the organised society could start with Axia dynasty which is believed to be the first. This dynasty was considerate mythical by historians until some excavations were made and after some research is believed that it existed the Xia dynasty and then after the Battle of Mintel between them and the Shang tribe which resulted in a shank victory. The shang dynasty ruled China for about 600 years. The Zhu dynasty was the longest lasting dynasty in Chinese history. 

The spring and autumn period is marked by filling a part of this central power. China broke up in hundreds of small states in time. The larger and more powerful states annexed and claims to serenity. The small ones big personalities like on futures or soon to lived in this period ruled by instability known as the barring States. The Qin Dynasty unified these states and created a Great Wall of China the Han Dynasty was a period of economic growth stability and prosperity for Chinese people. The Han dynasties named the Golden age in Chinese history by building the foundation of China as a unified and powerful state. Science art and culture all advanced as it wasn't seen before in this part of the world. 

 

One example mathematical innovations the dynasty named Han had been taken as the name of the Chinese people. We know today as Han Chinese the Han expanding to the west and the Silk Road was opened the three kingdoms by the second century. The Empire declined and three kingdoms were born they shoe and vous in 266. The Jin dynasty over to the way and later unify the country in 280. But for a short period of time northern China divided into a series of independent kingdoms. Most of which were founded by CEO no zombie GA da and Shang rulers which were ethnically speaking Hmong goes Turks or Tibetan. 

This period is known as the sixteen kingdoms period and it's marked by instability. In the early 5th century China entered the period known as the northern and southern dynasties in which many regimes ruled the northern and the southern halls of the country. In the south the Jin gave way to the live song southern Qi Liang and Chen while in the northern nomadic people called Sam Bay will unify the kingdoms with the name of northern wei. The northern wei eventually split into eastern and western way. These regimes were dominated by CM bay or Han Chinese who had married in tocsy Ambe families. 

 

From this one we can learn that the marriage between royal families could change Porter's or regimes pretty much as in medieval. Europe during this time the GMB will be assimilated by the Han people. Buddhism spread through the land of China despite the division of the country. Sui dynasty unified China again ending the three centuries of political division. sui China was known for its numerous mega construction projects intended for grains shipment and transporting troops. 

The Grand Canal was constructed linking the capital stack Singh and Luo yang to the wallet East Southeast region and in another route to the northeast border. The Great wall was also expanded while series of military conquests and diplomatic manners were made. However the massive invasion of the Korean, Peninsula failed and that led to the fall of this dynasty.  Most Chinese regard the tang dynasty as the high point of imperial China. The tang dynasty was founded by Emperor Gaozu on 18 June 618. It was a golden age of Chinese civilisation and one of the most prosperous period of China with significant developments. 

Cheng and the capital is believed to be the largest city in the world during its time due to internal revolt. China will break up again the period is known as Five Dynasties and ten kingdoms. The period of political disunity lasted from 907 to 965 regimes Liang Chun Jean Han and to rapidly succeeded one another in the control of the Empire most stable and smaller regimes of mostly ethnic. Han rulers coexisted in southern and western China over the period of ten kingdoms worse dominated in northern China and there were mus southward migrations in 960. 

 

The Sung Dynasty was founded by Emperor Tai zu. The Sung Dynasty unified most of China but there are two more kingdoms in the north western xia and liao sungket actually offers some territories closer the Great Wall. The campaign was a failure and Liao imposed heavy annual tributes from the south Treasury. The liao Empire some tribes revolted against their overlords to establish the Jin dynasty in 1115 which fought the sung and took the northern provinces. 

The era will end with a Mongol invasion was the Messiah fell in 1227 the Jin dynasty in 1234 and finally the southern Sung Dynasty fell in 1279. The new Mongol dynasty the yuan was formally proclaimed in 1271, won the Great Khan Kublai Khan one of the grandson of Genghis khan assumed the additional title of the Emperor of China. In this period the Grand Canal was reconstructed and Kwang soo and hyung zu emerged as the largest ports in the entire China. The contact of the West happened Marco Polo settled in China and then inspired other Europeans to reach the Far East. 

In this dynasty the paper was used as a method of currency for the first time. This was the father of our banknotes. Some Chinese didn't want to be under a Mongolian regime and some revolts happened and the Ming Dynasty will form in 1368. Before Mongolian invasions Chinese dynasties reported 120 million people living in China. Afterwards reporting just 60 million people due to invasion killing plagg and maybe failure to record exact numbers verbalization increased. As the population grew again China became a power once more, making contact with the outside world, Japan states from Indochina and exploring the Indian Ocean and even the east coast of Africa and Arabia. 

 

This was the exploration of Shanghai the Manchurian proclaimed the qin dynasty which ruled all of china and was the last imperial dynasty. Chinese defeated a new power in the region Russia and establish a border in the north by the end of the 18th century. China was a world power one-third of the world's population existed in Chinese Empire and they had the largest economy in the world. But after this it was a collapse again for the Chinese. China was defeated by British in the First Opium War losing Hong Kong Tran wars and rebellions religious wars. 

All made the empire weaker and weaker channel losing millions of people in these years. The Western powers sought to claim some territories in these regions. At the end of the 19th century China lost the first Sino-Japanese war against Japan. The new power on the East seeing all the struggles failing of reformation and instability. The dynasty was over too and the Republic was proclaimed in 1912 and in 2000 years of dynastic rule over China. At the end of the First World War a large wave of dissatisfaction hit China because at the treaty of Versailles. 

The German territories in China were given to Japan instead after the war many communist revolts started in China and thoughts happened between government and communist revolutionaries which tried to make like a Chinese Soviet country. But when the second Sino-Japanese war started the nice foreign and united front against their common enemy. 

The second Sino-Japanese war is part of the world war two where Japanese forces tried to invade China but they failed. After 1945 when Japanese forces surrender a civil war happened in China and the Communists had established control over most of the country. In the final the nationalist government retreated to Taiwan on 1st October 1949. 

 

Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China from that time on a large growth of population happened from 500 million people to 1.3 billion. Today China started to build industries and factories and building up its economy. It was accepted as the real China in 1972 and was admitted to the United Nations in place of Republic of China. 

Today's day 1 the Communist China took a different step than the other communist countries making more liberal reforms and opening their market by doing so the economy grew rapidly with more than 10 percent per year for more than 20 years. Today China is a war power as it was back in the time and I really think China as a country has one of the most richest history in the entire world. 

History of Democracy in the world

 What is democracy?

 

  Democracy is as we know it today as freedom a system of government in which the citizens exercise power directly or elect representatives from amongst themselves. The term democracy first appeared in ancient Greek political and philosophical thought in the city-state of Athens during classical antiquity. Even the word democracy comes from the ancient Greek language demos meaning people and Kratos meaning strength. 

Athenians established what is generally held as the first democracy in 582 507 BC. PLAs Deniz is referred to as the father of Athenian democracy. Athenian democracy took the form of a direct democracy and it had two distinguish features. The random selection of ordinary citizens to fill the few existing government administrative and judicial offices and a Legislative Assembly consisting of all Athenian citizens. 

All eligible citizens were allowed to speak in vote in the assembly which set the laws of the city state. However Athenian citizenship excluded women slaves foreigners. So it wasn't that free of wealth and vote as we know today but it was a good start speaking of ancient Rome, even though the Roman Republic contributed significantly to many aspects of democracy. 

 

Only a minority of Romans were citizens with votes in elections for representatives, additionally the Roman model of governments inspired many political thinkers over the centuries and today's modern representative democracies imitate more than Roman in the Greek models because it was a state in which supreme power was held by the people and their elected representative and which had an elected or nominated leader. 

Another example of the natives in North America which between around 1450 and 1640 mccr attic society before they came in contact with the Europeans. This indicates the forms of democracy may have been invented in other societies around the world. In medieval times most regions in Europe were ruled by clergy or feudal lords almost no democracy remained from the ancient Greeks or Romans.

 

The Parliament of England had its roots in the restrictions on the power of kings written into the Magna Carta in 1215 also the first English Parliament was created in 1265, starting separation of powers and state many laws and rules were made. After this event in the whole of Europe the power of Kings began to fade to local Nobles and afterwards to the people.

 After some centuries the case of proclamations in 1610 in England decided that the king by his proclamation or other ways cannot change any part of the common law or statute law. All the customs of the realm and that the king hath no prerogative but that which the law of the land allows him the Virginia House of Burgess's established in 1619, was the first representative legislative body in the new world. 

During a period of renewed interest in the Magna Carta the petition of right 1628 was passed by the Parliament of England. It established among other things. The illegality of taxation without parliamentary consent and arbitration imprisonment is critical historical juncture catalysed. The resurrection of democratic ideals and institutions the founding fathers of the United States rejected democracy as defined by the Greeks preferring instead a natural aristocracy and a Congress. 

 

The Americans as with the British took their cue from the Roman Republic model where the people were not respected. Revolutions happened in 1789 to 1799. The French Revolution happened against the French monarchy. The people showed their power once again in 1833. The slavery abolition Act was passed which took effect across the British Empire following the French the revolutions of 1848. 

Although in many instances forcefully put down did result in democratic constitutions in some other European countries. Black Africans were given the vote for the first time in southern Africa in 1853, in the British administer to Cape Province in 1870, in the United States of America. The Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution prohibited voting rights discrimination on the basis of race colour or previous condition of slavery. New Zealand was the first nation to introduce universal suffrage by awarding the vote to women in 1893 which is interesting. If we think the women got their first right to vote just 125 years ago.

 

The first parliamentary system in the Middle East was created in Persia today Iran. The end of the First World War was a temporary victory for democracy in Europe. Many monarchies collapsed and Democratic Republic's were courageous even communism was created in 1917. Based on some ideas from the 19th century the Bolsheviks believe the communism is the true democracy promoting the culture of work between people proletarians also. 

After World War one Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire collapsed giving the opportunity to oppress nations to be free in 1918. The United Kingdom granted the right to vote to and in 1928 granting women and men equal rights. In 1920 women got their right to vote in the United States and in 1944 in France. In 1924 granted full US citizenship to America's indigenous peoples called Indians. In effect world war ii was ultimately a victory for democracy in western Europe where representative governments were established that reflected the general will of their citizens however many countries of Central and Eastern Europe became undemocratic. 

 

Soviet satellite states decolonisation happened after the war and many countries in Africa gained their freedom. The Iron Curtain persisted after World War 2 until 1990 when the communist block collapsed peacefully except Romanian. Where there was a revolution from 1789 to the present day. The world has seen a dramatic expansion of democracy especially from 1989. Even if today there are still countries where democracy is not fitting well. 

Only Saudi Arabia, Myanmar, Brunei and the Vatican officially admit to being undemocratic. So North Korea for example is a communist country from where people cannot go where they have limited rights but they call themselves a democracy as I mentioned earlier communism was interpreted as a democratic regime but where people don't have so many rights. So that's why North Korea's official name is the Democratic Republic of Korea. 

In the Western world the term democracy is sometimes used as shorthand for liberal democracy. Majority rule is often listed as characteristic of democracy, hence democracy allows for political minorities to be oppressed by the tyranny of the majority in the absence of legal protections of individuals or group rights. This was the case of people in the former Soviet Union which weren't Russians. For example just 51% of the entire Soviet people were ethnically.

Russian today it's believed that the freedom of the world and the true democracy are in these states.